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<title>Natural language programming</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Natural language programming</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="Neuro-linguistic_programming" title="Neuro-linguistic programming">neuro-linguistic programming</a>, <a href="Literate_programming" title="Literate programming">literate programming</a>, or <a href="Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">natural language processing</a>.</div>

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<p><b>Natural language programming</b> (<b>NLP</b>) is an <a href="Ontology_(information_science)" title="Ontology (information science)">ontology</a>-assisted way of <a href="Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming</a> in terms of <a href="Natural_language" title="Natural language">natural language</a> sentences, e.g. <a href="English_language" title="English language">English</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A structured document with Content, sections and subsections for explanations of sentences forms a NLP document, which is actually a <a href="Computer_program" title="Computer program">computer program</a>. Natural language programming is not to be mixed up with natural language interfacing or voice control where a program is first written and then communicated with through natural language using an interface added on. In NLP the functionality of a program is organised only for the definition of the meaning of sentences. For instance, NLP can be used to represent all the knowledge of an autonomous robot. Having done so, its tasks can be scripted by its users so that the robot can execute them autonomously while keeping to prescribed rules of behaviour as determined by the robot's user. Such robots are called <i>transparent robots</i> <sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as their reasoning is transparent to users and this develops trust in robots. Natural language use and <a href="Natural_language_user_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural language user interface">natural language user interfaces</a> include <a href="Inform#Inform_7" title="Inform">Inform 7</a>, a natural programming language for making interactive fiction, <a href="Shakespeare_(programming_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shakespeare (programming language)">Shakespeare</a>, an <a href="Esoteric_programming_language" title="Esoteric programming language">esoteric</a> natural programming language in the style of the plays of <a href="William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>, and <a href="Wolfram_Alpha" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolfram Alpha">Wolfram Alpha</a>, a computational knowledge engine, using natural-language input. Some methods for <a href="Program_synthesis" title="Program synthesis">program synthesis</a> are based on natural-language programming.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interpretation">Interpretation</h2></div>

<p>The smallest unit of statement in NLP is a sentence. Each sentence is stated in terms of concepts from the underlying ontology, attributes in that ontology and named objects in <a href="Capital_letter" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital letter">capital letters</a>. In an NLP text every sentence unambiguously <a href="Compiler" title="Compiler">compiles</a> into a <a href="Procedure_call" class="mw-redirect" title="Procedure call">procedure call</a> in the underlying <a href="High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">high-level programming language</a> such as <a href="MATLAB" title="MATLAB">MATLAB</a>, <a href="GNU_Octave" title="GNU Octave">Octave</a>, <a href="SciLab" class="mw-redirect" title="SciLab">SciLab</a>, <a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>, etc.

</p><p>Symbolic languages such as <a href="Wolfram_Language" title="Wolfram Language">Wolfram Language</a> are capable of <a href="Interpreted_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpreted language">interpreted</a> processing of queries by sentences. This can allow interactive requests such as that implemented in <a href="Wolfram_Alpha" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolfram Alpha">Wolfram Alpha</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The difference between these and NLP is that the latter builds up a single program or a library of routines that are programmed through natural language sentences using an ontology that defines the available data structures in a high level programming language.

</p><p>An example text from an English language natural language program is as follows:

</p>

<p> If U_ is 'smc01-control', then do the following. Define surface weights Alpha as "[0.5, 0.5]".

Initialise matrix Phi as a 'unit matrix'. Define J as the 'inertia matrix' of Spc01. Compute

matrix J2 as the inverse of J. Compute position velocity error Ve and angular velocity error

Oe from dynamical state X, guidance reference Xnow. Define the joint sliding surface G2

from the position velocity error Ve and angular velocity error Oe using the surface weights

Alpha. Compute the smoothed sign function SG2 from the joint sliding surface G2 with sign

threshold 0.01. Compute special dynamical force F from dynamical state X and surface

weights Alpha. Compute control torque T and control force U from matrix J2, surface weights

Alpha, special dynamical force F, smoothed sign function SG2. Finish conditional actions.

</p>

</blockquote>

<p>that defines a feedback control scheme using a <a href="Sliding_mode_control" title="Sliding mode control">sliding mode control</a> method.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Software_paradigm">Software paradigm</h2></div>

<p>Natural-language programming is a top-down method of writing software. Its stages are as follows:

</p>

<ul><li>Definition of an <a href="Ontology_(information_science)" title="Ontology (information science)">ontology</a> – taxonomy – of concepts needed to describe tasks in the topic addressed. Each concept and all their attributes are defined in natural-language words. This ontology will define the data structures the NLP can use in sentences.</li>

<li>Definition of one or more top-level sentences in terms of concepts from the ontology. These sentences are later used to invoke the most important activities in the topic.</li>

<li>Defining of each of the top-level sentences in terms of a sequence of sentences.</li>

<li>Defining each of the lower-level sentences in terms of other sentences or by a simple sentence of the form <b> Execute code "...". </b> where ... stands for a code in terms of the associated high-level programming language.</li>

<li>Repeating the previous step until you have no sentences left undefined. During this process each of sentences can be classified to belong to a section of the document to be produced in HTML or Latex format to form the final natural-language program.</li>

<li>Testing the meaning of each sentence by executing its code using testing objects.</li>

<li>Providing a library of procedure calls (in the underlying high-level language) which are needed in the code definitions of some low-level-sentence meanings.</li>

<li>Providing a title, author data and compiling the sentences into an <a href="HTML" title="HTML">HTML</a> or <a href="LaTeX" title="LaTeX">LaTeX</a> file.</li>

<li>Publishing the natural-language program as a webpage on the Internet or as a <a href="PDF" title="PDF">PDF</a> file compiled from the LaTeX document.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Publication_value_of_natural-language_programs_and_documents">Publication value of natural-language programs and documents</h2></div>

<p>A natural-language program is a precise <a href="Formal_system" title="Formal system">formal</a> description of some procedure that its author created. It is human readable and it can also be read by a suitable software agent. For example, a web page in an NLP format can be read by a software <a href="Personal_assistant" title="Personal assistant">personal assistant</a> agent to a person and she or he can ask the agent to execute some sentences, i.e. carry out some task or answer a question. There is a <i>reader agent</i> available for English interpretation of HTML based NLP documents that a person can run on her <a href="Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">personal computer</a> .

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contribution_of_natural-language_programs_to_machine_knowledge">Contribution of natural-language programs to machine knowledge</h2></div>

<p>An ontology class is a natural-language program that is not a <a href="Concept" title="Concept">concept</a> in the sense as humans use concepts. Concepts in an NLP are examples (samples) of generic human concepts. Each sentence in a natural-language program is either (1) stating a relationship in a world model or (2) carries out an action in the environment or (3) carries out a computational procedure or (4) invokes an answering mechanism in response to a question.

</p><p>A set of NLP sentences, with associated ontology defined, can also be used as a <a href="Pseudo_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudo code">pseudo code</a> that does not provide the details in any underlying high level programming language. In such an application the sentences used become high level abstractions (conceptualisations) of computing procedures that are computer language and machine independent.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="AI_in_natural_language_programming">AI in natural language programming</h2></div>

<p>Researchers have started to experiment with natural language programming environments that use plain language prompts and then use AI (specifically large language models) to turn natural language into formal code. For example Spatial Pixel <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uaos-g1TBKU&ab%20channel=spatialpixel">created a natural language programming environment</a> to turn natural language into P5.js code through OpenAI's API. In 2021 OpenAI developed a natural language programming environment for their programming large language model called <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openai.com/blog/openai-codex">Codex</a>.

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Controlled_natural_language" title="Controlled natural language">Controlled natural language</a></li>

<li><a href="Context-free_language" title="Context-free language">Context-free language</a></li>

<li><a href="Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">Domain-specific language</a> (or DSL)</li>

<li><a href="End-user_programming" class="mw-redirect" title="End-user programming">End-user programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_representation" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge representation">Knowledge representation</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural-language_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural-language processing">Natural-language processing</a></li>

<li><a href="Automatic_programming#Source-code_generation" title="Automatic programming">Source-code generation</a></li>

<li><a href="Very_high-level_programming_language" title="Very high-level programming language">Very high-level programming language</a></li>

<li><a href="Vibe_coding" title="Vibe coding">Vibe coding</a>, a method of performing natural language programming using a large language model</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Programming_languages_with_English-like_syntax">Programming languages with English-like syntax</h3></div>

<ul><li><a href="AppleScript" title="AppleScript">AppleScript</a></li>

<li><a href="Attempto_Controlled_English" title="Attempto Controlled English">Attempto Controlled English</a></li>

<li><a href="COBOL" title="COBOL">COBOL</a></li>

<li><a href="ClearTalk" title="ClearTalk">ClearTalk</a></li>

<li><a href="FLOW-MATIC" title="FLOW-MATIC">FLOW-MATIC</a></li>

<li><a href="HyperTalk" title="HyperTalk">HyperTalk</a></li>

<li><a href="Inform_7" class="mw-redirect" title="Inform 7">Inform 7</a></li>

<li><a href="SenseTalk" title="SenseTalk">SenseTalk</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_AG" title="Software AG">Software AG</a></li>

<li><a href="Transcript_(programming_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcript (programming language)">Transcript</a></li>

<li><a href="Structured_Query_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Structured Query Language">Structured Query Language</a> (or SQL)</li>

<li><a href="XTalk" class="mw-redirect" title="XTalk">xTalk</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Programming_languages_with_other_natural_language-like_vocabulary_or_syntax">Programming languages with other natural language-like vocabulary or syntax</h3></div>

<ul><li><a href="Non-English-based_programming_languages" title="Non-English-based programming languages">Non-English-based programming languages</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFMiller1981" class="citation journal cs1">Miller, L. A. (1981). "Natural language programming: Styles, strategies, and contrasts". <i>IBM Systems Journal</i>. <b>20</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">184–</span>215. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1147%2Fsj.202.0184">10.1147/sj.202.0184</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Development of reliable and trustworthy robots. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.transparentrobots.org">transparent robots</a>" }</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Desai, Aditya, et al. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1509.00413">Program synthesis using natural language</a>." Proceedings of the 38th International Conference on Software Engineering. ACM, 2016.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerweekly.com/Articles/2009/06/04/236293/wolfram-alpha-how-it-works-part-2.htm">Wolfram Alpha – how it works (part 2)</a> Computer Weekly, 4 June 2009</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://techcrunch.com/2009/03/08/wolfram-alpha-computes-answers-to-factual-questions-this-is-going-to-be-big/">Wolfram Alpha computes answers</a> Tech Crunch, 8 March 2009</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div>

<dl><dt>Books</dt>

<ul><li><i>Natural Language Programming of Agents and Robotic Devices: publishing for agents and humans in sEnglish</i> by S M Veres, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-9558417-0-5</bdi>, London, June 2008.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDijkstra1979" class="citation book cs1">Dijkstra, Edsger W. (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/transcriptions/EWD06xx/EWD667.html">"On the foolishness of "natural language programming""</a>. <i>Program Construction</i>. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 69. pp. <span class="nowrap">51–</span>53. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbfb0014656">10.1007/bfb0014656</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-540-09251-X</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLiebermanLiu2006" class="citation book cs1">Lieberman, Henry; Liu, Hugo (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/enduserdevelopme0000unse/page/459">"Feasibility Studies for Programming in Natural Language"</a>. <i>End User Development</i>. Human-Computer Interaction Series. Vol. 9. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/enduserdevelopme0000unse/page/459">459–473</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F1-4020-5386-x_20">10.1007/1-4020-5386-x_20</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4020-4220-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHalpern1990" class="citation book cs1">Halpern, Mark (1990). "Natural Language and Redundancy in Programming". <i>Binding Time: Six Studies in Programming Technology & Milieu</i>. Ablex series in computational science. Intellect Books. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780893916916</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<dl><dt>Papers at conferences</dt>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFVeresMolnar2010" class="citation book cs1">Veres, S.M.; Molnar, L. (2010). "Documents for Intelligent Agents in English". <i>Artificial Intelligence and Applications</i>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2316%2Fp.2010.674-122">10.2316/p.2010.674-122</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-88986-817-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><i>Sliding mode control of autonomous spacecraft.</i> (half written in sEnglish) by S M Veres an N K Lincoln, <i>Proc. TAROS’2008, Towards Autonomous Robotic Systems</i>, Edinburgh, 1–3 September 2008.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFVeres2010" class="citation book cs1">Veres, Sandor M. (2010). "Mission Capable Autonomous Control Systems in the Oceans, in the Air and in Space". <i>Brain-Inspired Information Technology</i>. Studies in Computational Intelligence. Vol. 266. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>10. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-04025-2_1">10.1007/978-3-642-04025-2_1</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-642-04024-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPulido-PrietoJuárez-Martínez2017" class="citation journal cs1">Pulido-Prieto, Oscar; Juárez-Martínez, Ulises (2017). "A Survey of Naturalistic Programming Technologies". <i>ACM Computing Surveys</i>. <b>50</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>35. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F3109481">10.1145/3109481</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2078759">2078759</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<dl><dt><a href="Program_synthesis" title="Program synthesis">Program synthesis</a> from natural language specifications</dt></dl>

<ul><li>Raza, Mohammad, Sumit Gulwani, and Natasa Milic-Frayling. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/IJCAI/IJCAI15/paper/download/11280/10773">Compositional Program Synthesis from Natural Language and Examples</a>." IJCAI. 2015.</li>

<li>Green, Cordell. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ijcai.org/Proceedings/77-1/Papers/067.pdf">A Summary of the PSI Program Synthesis System</a>." IJCAI. Vol. 5. 1977.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://github.com/pannous/english-script/">English Script</a> (dormant since 2016)</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://OsmosianPlainEnglishProgramming.blog/">Plain English Programming</a> Programming language using English sentences in ASCII.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-nlp.stanford.edu/software/sempre/">SEMPRE</a>  – a toolkit for training semantic parsers</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sysbrain.com">sysbrain.com</a>  – sEnglish Editor in C++/ROS for robot programming to develop transparent robots.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wy-lang.org">wy-lang.org</a>  – "Programming Language for the ancient Chinese"</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mitcho.com/blog/projects/how-natural-should-a-natural-interface-be/">How natural should a natural interface be?</a> – thoughts on how "natural" the <a href="Ubiquity_(Firefox)" title="Ubiquity (Firefox)">Ubiquity</a> interface (dormant since 2009)</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trnmag.com/Stories/2005/032305/Tool_turns_English_to_code_032305.html">Metafor turns English to code</a> (dormant since 2005)</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US7860815">Computer knowledge representation format, system, methods, and applications</a> – US patent re: hyperlinking to .who/what/where/when/how XML files that embed NL</li></ul>

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</style><div id="Programming_paradigms_(Comparison_by_language)368" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Programming paradigms</a> (<a href="Comparison_of_multi-paradigm_programming_languages" title="Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages">Comparison by language</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Imperative_programming" title="Imperative programming">Imperative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Structured_programming" title="Structured programming">Structured</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Jackson_structured_programming" title="Jackson structured programming">Jackson structures</a></li>

<li><a href="Block_(programming)" title="Block (programming)">Block-structured</a></li>

<li><a href="Modular_programming" title="Modular programming">Modular</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-structured_programming" title="Non-structured programming">Non-structured</a></li>

<li><a href="Procedural_programming" title="Procedural programming">Procedural</a></li>

<li><a href="Programming_in_the_large_and_programming_in_the_small" title="Programming in the large and programming in the small">Programming in the large and in the small</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_by_contract" title="Design by contract">Design by contract</a></li>

<li><a href="Invariant-based_programming" title="Invariant-based programming">Invariant-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Nested_function" title="Nested function">Nested function</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">Object-oriented</a><br>(<a href="Comparison_of_programming_languages_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Comparison of programming languages (object-oriented programming)">comparison</a>, <a href="List_of_object-oriented_programming_languages" title="List of object-oriented programming languages">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Class-based_programming" title="Class-based programming">Class-based</a>, <a href="Prototype-based_programming" title="Prototype-based programming">Prototype-based</a>, <a href="Object-based_language" title="Object-based language">Object-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Agent-oriented_programming" title="Agent-oriented programming">Agent</a></li>

<li><a href="Immutable_object" title="Immutable object">Immutable object</a></li>

<li><a href="Persistent_programming_language" title="Persistent programming language">Persistent</a></li>

<li><a href="Uniform_function_call_syntax" title="Uniform function call syntax">Uniform function call syntax</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Declarative_programming" title="Declarative programming">Declarative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">Functional</a><br>(<a href="Comparison_of_functional_programming_languages" title="Comparison of functional programming languages">comparison</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Recursion_(computer_science)" title="Recursion (computer science)">Recursive</a></li>

<li><a href="Anonymous_function" title="Anonymous function">Anonymous function</a> (<a href="Partial_application" title="Partial application">Partial application</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Higher-order_programming" title="Higher-order programming">Higher-order</a></li>

<li><a href="Purely_functional_programming" title="Purely functional programming">Purely functional</a></li>

<li><a href="Total_functional_programming" title="Total functional programming">Total</a></li>

<li><a href="Strict_programming_language" title="Strict programming language">Strict</a></li>

<li><a href="Generalized_algebraic_data_type" title="Generalized algebraic data type">GADTs</a></li>

<li><a href="Dependent_type" title="Dependent type">Dependent types</a></li>

<li><a href="Functional_logic_programming" title="Functional logic programming">Functional logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Tacit_programming" title="Tacit programming">Point-free style</a></li>

<li><a href="Expression-oriented_programming_language" title="Expression-oriented programming language">Expression-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Applicative_programming_language" title="Applicative programming language">Applicative</a>, <a href="Concatenative_programming_language" title="Concatenative programming language">Concatenative</a></li>

<li><a href="Function-level_programming" title="Function-level programming">Function-level</a>, <a href="Value-level_programming" title="Value-level programming">Value-level</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Dataflow_programming" title="Dataflow programming">Dataflow</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Flow-based_programming" title="Flow-based programming">Flow-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Reactive_programming" title="Reactive programming">Reactive</a> (<a href="Functional_reactive_programming" title="Functional reactive programming">Functional reactive</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Signal_programming" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal programming">Signals</a></li>

<li><a href="Stream_processing" title="Stream processing">Streams</a></li>

<li><a href="Synchronous_programming_language" title="Synchronous programming language">Synchronous</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Logic_programming" title="Logic programming">Logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abductive_logic_programming" title="Abductive logic programming">Abductive logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Answer_set_programming" title="Answer set programming">Answer set</a></li>

<li><a href="Constraint_programming" title="Constraint programming">Constraint</a> (<a href="Constraint_logic_programming" title="Constraint logic programming">Constraint logic</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Inductive_logic_programming" title="Inductive logic programming">Inductive logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Nondeterministic_programming" title="Nondeterministic programming">Nondeterministic</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontology_language" title="Ontology language">Ontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Probabilistic_logic_programming" title="Probabilistic logic programming">Probabilistic logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Query_language" title="Query language">Query</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">DSL</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Algebraic_modeling_language" title="Algebraic modeling language">Algebraic modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Array_programming" title="Array programming">Array</a></li>

<li><a href="Automata-based_programming" title="Automata-based programming">Automata-based</a> (<a href="Action_language" title="Action language">Action</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Command_language" title="Command language">Command</a> (<a href="Spacecraft_command_language" title="Spacecraft command language">Spacecraft</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Differentiable_programming" title="Differentiable programming">Differentiable</a></li>

<li><a href="Grammar-oriented_programming" title="Grammar-oriented programming">Grammar-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Interface_description_language" title="Interface description language">Interface description</a></li>

<li><a href="Language-oriented_programming" title="Language-oriented programming">Language-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="List_comprehension" title="List comprehension">List comprehension</a></li>

<li><a href="Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural-language_programming" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural-language programming">Natural language</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-English-based_programming_languages" title="Non-English-based programming languages">Non-English-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Page_description_language" title="Page description language">Page description</a></li>

<li><a href="Pipeline_(software)" title="Pipeline (software)">Pipes</a> and <a href="Filter_(software)" title="Filter (software)">filters</a></li>

<li><a href="Probabilistic_programming" title="Probabilistic programming">Probabilistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_programming" title="Quantum programming">Quantum</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_programming_language" title="Scientific programming language">Scientific</a></li>

<li><a href="Scripting_language" title="Scripting language">Scripting</a></li>

<li><a href="Set_theoretic_programming" title="Set theoretic programming">Set-theoretic</a></li>

<li><a href="Simulation_language" title="Simulation language">Simulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Stack-oriented_programming" title="Stack-oriented programming">Stack-based</a></li>

<li><a href="System_programming_language" title="System programming language">System</a></li>

<li><a href="Tactile_programming_language" title="Tactile programming language">Tactile</a></li>

<li><a href="Template_processor" title="Template processor">Templating</a></li>

<li><a href="Transformation_language" title="Transformation language">Transformation</a> (<a href="Graph_rewriting" title="Graph rewriting">Graph rewriting</a>, <a href="Production_system_(computer_science)" title="Production system (computer science)">Production</a>, <a href="Pattern_matching" title="Pattern matching">Pattern</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Visual_programming_language" title="Visual programming language">Visual</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Concurrent_computing" title="Concurrent computing">Concurrent</a>,<br><a href="Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing">distributed</a>,<br><a href="Parallel_computing" title="Parallel computing">parallel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Actor_model" title="Actor model">Actor-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Automatic_mutual_exclusion" title="Automatic mutual exclusion">Automatic mutual exclusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Choreographic_programming" title="Choreographic programming">Choreographic programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Concurrent_logic_programming" title="Concurrent logic programming">Concurrent logic</a> (<a href="Concurrent_constraint_logic_programming" title="Concurrent constraint logic programming">Concurrent constraint logic</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Concurrent_object-oriented_programming" title="Concurrent object-oriented programming">Concurrent OO</a></li>

<li><a href="Macroprogramming" title="Macroprogramming">Macroprogramming</a></li>

<li><a href="Multitier_programming" title="Multitier programming">Multitier programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Organic_computing" title="Organic computing">Organic computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Parallel_programming_model" title="Parallel programming model">Parallel programming models</a></li>

<li><a href="Partitioned_global_address_space" title="Partitioned global address space">Partitioned global address space</a></li>

<li><a href="Process-oriented_programming" title="Process-oriented programming">Process-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Relativistic_programming" title="Relativistic programming">Relativistic programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Service-oriented_programming" title="Service-oriented programming">Service-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Structured_concurrency" title="Structured concurrency">Structured concurrency</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Metaprogramming" title="Metaprogramming">Metaprogramming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Attribute-oriented_programming" title="Attribute-oriented programming">Attribute-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Automatic_programming" title="Automatic programming">Automatic</a> (<a href="Inductive_programming" title="Inductive programming">Inductive</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Dynamic_programming_language" title="Dynamic programming language">Dynamic</a></li>

<li><a href="Extensible_programming" title="Extensible programming">Extensible</a></li>

<li><a href="Generic_programming" title="Generic programming">Generic</a></li>

<li><a href="Homoiconicity" title="Homoiconicity">Homoiconicity</a></li>

<li><a href="Interactive_programming" title="Interactive programming">Interactive</a></li>

<li><a href="Macro_(computer_science)" title="Macro (computer science)">Macro</a> (<a href="Hygienic_macro" title="Hygienic macro">Hygienic</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Metalinguistic_abstraction" title="Metalinguistic abstraction">Metalinguistic abstraction</a></li>

<li><a href="Multi-stage_programming" title="Multi-stage programming">Multi-stage</a></li>

<li><a href="Program_synthesis" title="Program synthesis">Program synthesis</a> (<a href="Bayesian_program_synthesis" title="Bayesian program synthesis">Bayesian</a>, <a href="Inferential_programming" title="Inferential programming">Inferential</a>, <a href="Programming_by_demonstration" title="Programming by demonstration">by demonstration</a>, <a href="Programming_by_example" title="Programming by example">by example</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Reflective_programming" title="Reflective programming">Reflective</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-modifying_code" title="Self-modifying code">Self-modifying code</a></li>

<li><a href="Symbolic_programming" title="Symbolic programming">Symbolic</a></li>

<li><a href="Template_metaprogramming" title="Template metaprogramming">Template</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Separation_of_concerns" title="Separation of concerns">Separation<br>of concerns</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aspect-oriented_programming" title="Aspect-oriented programming">Aspects</a></li>

<li><a href="Component-based_software_engineering" title="Component-based software engineering">Components</a></li>

<li><a href="Data-driven_programming" title="Data-driven programming">Data-driven</a></li>

<li><a href="Data-oriented_design" title="Data-oriented design">Data-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Event-driven_programming" title="Event-driven programming">Event-driven</a></li>

<li><a href="Feature-oriented_programming" title="Feature-oriented programming">Features</a></li>

<li><a href="Literate_programming" title="Literate programming">Literate</a></li>

<li><a href="Role-oriented_programming" title="Role-oriented programming">Roles</a></li>

<li><a href="Subject-oriented_programming" title="Subject-oriented programming">Subjects</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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